ARTICLES

Species Profile: New Guinean small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka)

David Williams
Australian Venom Research Unit PNG Snakebite Project (1,2)
(1) Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine
University of Melbourne
(2) School of Medicine & Health Sciences
University of Papua New Guinea

INTRODUCTION

The forests of New Guinea are home to several species of venomous snakes that are endemic only to Papua New Guinea, West Papua and the Solomon Islands. These mostly crepuscular snakes include several species of small fossorial serpents in the genus Toxicocalamus; the spectacularly colourful Solomon's small-eyed snake (Loveridgelaps elapoides); secretive Solomon's coral snake (Salomonelaps par); and the wide-ranging highly venomous New Guinea small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). This last snake is a significant cause of snakebite in some parts of northern Papua New Guinea, yet remains poorly known to scientists and local villagers alike.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION

Body shape and geometry
This is a thick-bodied, powerfully muscled snake with a flat, broad head, and, as the name implies, the characteristically small, recessed eyes of typical fossorial species. The head is distinct from the neck in smaller specimens, but this is less pronounced in heavily muscled larger snakes. The body is cylindrical and the scales are smooth.

Body size
The average total length has been reported to be 1.2-1.4 metres with a maximum length of up to 2.1 metres1; however a specimen collected near the Gogol River south of Madang in 1995 measured 2.3 metres in total length. The mean length of five specimens measured in the National Museum and Art Gallery collection was 1444 ± SE 89.7 mm (range: 1285-1785 mm).

Body colouration
Micropechis ikaheka has an extremely variable colour pattern that is essentially based on a greyish head and pale yellow, creamish or salmon coloured body with dark-tipped scale edges that give rise to broad dark bands from midbody to the end of the tail. Juvenile snakes are much more prominently marked than adults suggesting that colour and pattern fades with age. In the Madang Province and particularly on Karkar Island where the species is especially common it is often known colloquially as the 'white snake' due to its pale body colour.

Scalation
Midbody dorsal scale rows are in 15 rows; ventrals number 178-225; and the anal plate is divided as are the 36-55 subcaudals under the tail.

Figure 1
Juvenile small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka) from Karkar Island off the Madang coast on the northern side of Papua New Guinea.


DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT DATA

Distribution in Papua New Guinea
Recorded from northern Western Province (Kiunga to Star Mountains) and through all of the Highland and New Guinea Provinces with isolated records from Gulf and Central provinces. The species is the most well-known on Karkar Island off the coast of Madang and there are many records from villages such as Mom, Kurum, Miak, Kulkul, Kaviak, Bulu and from around the Gaubin Lutheran Mission. There are also numerous records from the nearby mainland including Madang Township, Alexishafen, Malolo, Nageda and Bogia. It is probable that the snake is found on Manam Island off Bogia. Further along the coast it is common near Wewak and Aitape and occurs on Walis Island.

Small-eyed snakes are also common around Popondetta, Buna, Kokoda and Ilimo in Oro Province, and at Garaina, Wau and Bulolo in Morobe province. There are also multiple records from Telefomin (1500 metres above sea level) and at Tabubil, Ningerum, Rumginae, Takam and Munbil in Western province. Records are scattered throughout the rest of the Highlands and New Guinea provinces but this may be due more to the crepuscular nature of the snake than to a lack of abundance.

Figure 2
Distribution of the small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka) within Papua New Guinea.


Distribution outside Papua New Guinea
This species is widely distributed in West Papua with reports from as far afield as Montagne de Karoon on the north-western side of Waigao Island to Jayapura near the Papua New Guinea border in the east of West Papua province. There are museum records from Batante Island and from Misool Island north of Seram. In Geelvink Bay small-eyed snakes have been found on Jobi and Numfoor Islands and it also occurs on Mansinam Island off the eastern coast of Sorong. Mainland records include the mountainous Baliem Valley, Wasior on the Wandammen Peninsula, Fakfak on the Onim Peninsula, and Mimika River and Merauke in the south. There are also reports of specimens from the Aru Islands.

Habitat preferences
This species live a mainly terrestrial existence on the floors of forests and plantations throughout its range. Specimens have been found from near sea level to altitudes of more than 1500 metres, and the species appears to tolerate the conditions in cool, wet mountain forests very well. It is crepuscular and spends most of its time either hidden under ground debris or foraging among leaf litter. Specimens are common in monsoonal forests, lowland swamps and in both lowland and montane rainforests. There are abundant regional populations concentrated in areas with large Cocoa plantations, particularly Karkar Island, Kokoda, Aitape and Wewak. The coconut harvesting process results in the creation of large 'coconut husk piles'; large piles of dried coconut husks left over after the nuts are removed, and these present both a haven to small-eyed snakes and a hazard to local plantation workers.

Figure 3
Small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka) from Popondetta, Oro Province, PNG.


BIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DATA

Dietary preferences
Captive small-eyed snakes feed readily on lizards and frogs, and can be 'encouraged' to accept rodents with minimal difficulty. In the wild they share habitats with numerous species of small skinks, frogs, rodents and other snakes, and it has been reported that they will eat almost anything they encounter1. Large small-eyed snakes will eat smaller conspecifics without hesitation, and it may be that wild snakes are routinely cannibalistic.

Reproduction
On the 16th May 2004 the Moscow Zoo had two juveniles hatch from a clutch of five eggs after a gestation period of 77 days. An earlier clutch had failed to hatch. At the joint AVRU/UPNG Serpentarium in Port Moresby, a female M. ikaheka less than 1 metre in length produced 5 eggs in September 2006 after mating with a 1.2 metre male snake in June of the same year. At the time of writing (November, 2006) these eggs have not yet hatched.

Activity data
During the dry season this snake is a common inhabitant of coconut husk piles on Karkar Island but appears to disperse from these into neighbouring forest during the wet season1. On the mainland snakes living in natural forest are rarely encountered and nothing is really known about their daily or seasonal activity cycles. During the wet season snakes are often encountered moving across roads and bush tracks at night, often well into the early hours of the morning.

Figure 4
Discarded coconut husks decompose very slowly, and form ideal microhabitats for crepuscular species such as the small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). Finding live specimens for venom research entails systematic dismantling of these rotting husk piles.


Behaviour
Small-eyed snakes are shy and inoffensive until disturbed. If handled or stepped on they are very defensive and bite readily, often chewing down hard and refusing to let go again. Small specimens are very agile and surprisingly fast. Although generally considered to be a ground dwelling largely nocturnal species, there is a single report from West Papua of a serious snakebite having been caused by a large Micropechis ikaheka that was caught in a bird trap high in a tree(2). The small eyes and smooth body scales are specific adaptations for foraging among the ground debris and loose topsoil in which the snake spends the majority of its life. Snakes collected inside coconut husk piles are rarely inactive, and this suggests that although the snake is rarely seen in the open during daylight it is active among the ground debris during this time.

VENOM COMPOSITION AND TOXICITY

As is the case with the Papuan blacksnake (Pseudechis papuanus), the availability of live small-eyed snakes (Micropechis ikaheka) from wildlife dealers in Papua and Indonesia has resulted in the recent characterization of some major venom components by overseas researchers(3-11). The venom has strong neurotoxic, myotoxic, anticoagulant, platelet aggregation inhibiting and insulin-secretion stimulating activities. In patients bitten by this species neurotoxicity and myotoxicity appear to be the major clinical consequences(2,12-14). Two cases in which patients had incoagulable blood have been attributed to powerful anticoagulant rather than procoagulant activity(12); however researchers in Singapore recently isolated Mikarin, a single-chain metalloproteinase of 47 kDa3. Mikarin is unique compared to all other Australo-papuan snakes in being a Ca2+-independent prothrombin activator, and is the first Group I prothrombin activator to be found in elapid venom. A novel non-haemolytic, haemoglobinuria-inducing toxin (MiPLA-1), which is a 14 kDa, 124 amino acid residue PLA2, has been identified, and shown to also strongly inhibit collagen-induced platelet aggregation, as well as being potently myotoxic and anticoagulant(4). It has been suggested that this toxin might produce haemoglobinuria by causing kidney leakage via either a direct or indirect nephrotoxic mechanism. MiPLA-1 is unique among snake venom PLA2s in that it is one of only a few to possess a 'pancreatic loop' region which has a major role in toxin conformation and hydrolytic activity. Several 'short-chain' and 'long-chain' postsynaptic neurotoxins with molecular weights of 6-8 kDa have also been isolated from Micropechis ikaheka venom(5-8). One of these, Mikatoxin, has been found to produce neuromuscular paralysis through irreversible nicotinic AChR antagonism(8). As well as these, an 11 kDa venom fraction containing a ' long-chain' neurotoxin also inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation(9). The anticoagulant activity of Micropechis ikaheka venom is underpinned by the presence of a 17 kDa PLA2 toxin that inhibits both endothelial and platelet-induced procoagulation(9). Three additional PLA2 toxins exhibit myotoxicity, anticoagulant activity and stimulate insulin secretion(7). While the myotoxicity and anticoagulant activity were induced by the enzymatic actions of the toxins, the stimulation of insulin secretion was independent of enzymatic activity.

MEDICAL IMPORTANCE

Bites by small-eyed snakes appear to be uncommon on the mainland of Papua New Guinea, but one study found that approximately 40% of envenomations on Karkar Island could be attributed to bites by Micropechis ikaheka(2). At Madang on the mainland only 8.7% of bites were caused by this species; the remainder were caused by death adders (Acanthophis spp.)(14). In the Kikori district of Gulf province small-eyed snakes are said by villagers to be quite common, and photographs of this snake were recognised by many people at Omati, Baina, Komaio and Karoulti. These villagers were adamant however that the snake did not bite people, and said that all of the snakebites in their region were caused by death adders.

ANTIVENOM

There is no specific antivenom available for treating bites by this species, although there are reports that CSL tiger snake and CSL blacksnake antivenoms may be beneficial(11,13). A recent study found that while blacksnake antivenom neutralised the neurotoxicity induced by small-eyed snake venom, it was less effective at negating cardiovascular and haemotoxic effects(11). CSL polyvalent antivenom was the most effective at neutralising all of the effects of this venom, and is currently recommended for treatment of human envenomation. Priority is being given to determining the binding efficacy of current antivenoms to specific toxins in M. ikaheka venom.

REFERENCES

1. O'SHEA MT. (1996) A Guide to the Snakes of Papua New Guinea. Independent Publishing Limited, Port Moresby, PNG

2. WARRELL DA., HUDSON BG, LALLOO DG, et al., (1996) The emerging syndrome of envenoming by the New Guinea small-eyed snake Micropechis ikaheka. QJM. 89:523-30.

3. GAO R, KINI RM, GOPALAKRISHNAKONE P. (2002) A novel prothrombin activator from the venom of Micropechis ikaheka: isolation and characterization. Arch Biochem Biophys. 408(1):97-92.

4. GAO R, KINI RM, GOPALAKRISHNAKONE P. (1999) Purification, properties, and amino acid sequence of a hemoglobinuria-inducing phospholipase A(2) MiPLA-1, from Micropechis ikaheka venom. Arch Biochem Biophys. 369(1):181-92.

5. VINCENT A, OO S-L, RANG S. (1995) Identification of neurotoxic activities and preliminary fractionation of the New Guinean small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). Toxicon. 33(5):586.

6. GEH SL, VINCENT A, RANG S. (1997) Identification of phospholipase A2 and neurotoxic activities in the venom of the New Guinean small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). Toxicon. 35(1):101-9.

7. GAO R, KINI RM, LI G, et al. (2001) Purification and properties of three new phospholipase A2 isoenzymes from Micropechis ikaheka venom. Biochem et Biophys Acta. 1545(1-2):30-40.

8. NIRTHANAN SR, GAO P, GOPALAKRISHNAKONE P, et al. (2002) Pharmacological characterization of mikatoxin, an alpha-neurotoxin isolated from the venom of the New-Guinean small-eyed snake Micropechis ikaheka. Toxicon. 40(7):863-71.

9. SUNDELL IB, THEAKSTON RD, KAMIGUTI AS et al. (2001) The inhibition of platelet aggregation and blood coagulation by Micropechis ikaheka venom. Br J Haematol. 114(4):852-60.

10. KAMIGUTI AS, TREWEEKE AT, LOWE GM, et al. (1995) Platelet and neutrophil function inhibition by Micropechis ikaheka (small-eyed snake) venom: role of phospholipase A2. Toxicon. 33(3):275

11. TIBBALLS J, KURUPPU S, HODGSON WC, et al. (2003) Cardiovascular, haematological and neurological effects of the venom of the Papua New Guinean small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka) and their neutralisation with CSL polyvalent and black snake antivenoms. Toxicon. 42(6):647-55.

12. HUDSON, BJ. (1988b) The small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka): a review of current knowledge. PNG Med J. 31(3):173-8.

13. BLASCO P, HORNABROOK RW. (1972) A neglected but potentially dangerous New Guinea snake - the small eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). PNG Med J. 15(3):155-156.

14. HUDSON BJ, POMAT K. (1988) Ten years of snake bite in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med & Hyg. 82(3):506-8.



Surgical Removal of Venom Glands in Australian Elapid Snakes - Reply
Dr Franciscus Scheelings BVSc
Special Interest in Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery
Member Association Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians
Member of Exotic and Unusual Pets special interest group of the Australian Veterinary Association

I read with some interest the paper presented by Raymond Hoser on the surgical removal of venom glands in Australian Elapid snakes and the related article detailing the insertion of silicone implants into these animals in The Crocodilian.(1, 2) I felt that as a practicing Veterinarian with an avid interest in reptile and amphibian medicine and surgery that it was appropriate for me to comment on some of the animal welfare issues associated with the outlined procedure.

Reptiles are ancient creatures and as such their unique anatomy and physiology presents a distinct challenge to Veterinarians. They are poikilothermic animals, that is, they derive their preferred body temperature by moving between sun and shade, a process known as thermoregulation.(3-7) This behaviour allows them to maintain a fairly constant body temperature in order for normal physiological processes such as immune surveillance and cardiovascular function to occur. (4-7) Each species of reptile has its own characteristic "Preferred Optimal Body Temperature" (POTZ) and it is essential that they be maintained close to this temperature during anaesthesia. (4-7) Generally speaking a temperature of around 28-30°C is adequate for most species and will ensure a more predictable response to anaesthetic agents.(4-7)

The use of hypothermia to induce anaesthesia or for euthanasia in reptiles or amphibians is no longer considered humane as it has no analgesic effects and predisposes to a wide range of other complications. (4-7, 10, 12) Hypothermia causes depression of the respiratory centre, reducing the ventilatory drive so that breathing becomes slow and weak.(8) Under these conditions some species of reptiles may convert to anaerobic metabolism (this ability is more pronounced in turtles) but this cannot be maintained for extended periods and is considered dangerous.(6) Furthermore as the heart slows and cardiac output is decreased disturbances of cardiac rhythm occur leading to ventricular fibrillation and death.(8) More recent research has shown that reptiles subjected to freezing temperatures experience intense pain as extracellular fluids begin to form ice crystals long before the reptile loses consciousness and pain perception.(9) There is no scientific evidence to suggest that hypothermia reduces nociception in either mammalian or reptilian species. It is thus erroneous to assume that hypothermia is a safe alternative to chemical anaesthsia and to cite anecdotal evidence as a legitimate argument against known scientific fact is misleading, inflammatory and without substance. The use of chemical induction agents have been well described for the various species and it is not the focus of this paper to summarise these. (4-7, 10-12)

Other physiological and anatomical factors that may complicate anaesthesia in reptiles include their slower metabolic rate which may prolong induction and recovery (this can easily be minimized by maintaining them at a high temperature) and the fact that reptiles don't have a diaphragm. Under normal circumstances respiration in reptiles is achieved by movement of the skeletal muscles of the thoracic and coelomic walls but during anaesthesia this may cease, making artificial ventilation necessary. (4-7, 10) This is easily achieved by inserting an endotracheal tube into the trachea and having an assistant perform Intermittent Partial Pressure Ventilation at a rate of 4-6 breaths/min. (4)

Reptile neuroanatomy is similar to that of mammalian species and as such it may be extrapolated that they experience pain in a similar manner.(3-7, 9-12) Therefore it is reasonable to expect anyone who is going to perform a potentially painful procedure to administer appropriate analgesia. In a typical Veterinary Practice this would consist of an opioid with or without an alpha-2 agonist as a pre-medication approximately 1 hour prior to surgery. (3-7, 9-12) Not only do these drugs provide good analgesia but they also act to lower the dose of induction agent required leading to a smoother and safer induction. Post-operative pain is usually managed with Non Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) and the duration of their use is dependant on the procedure performed. (4-7, 9-11) It is not accepted practice to perform a surgical procedure on an animal and not provide adequate pain relief.

While there may be slight variation in the way that some species may respond to certain classes of drugs generally the described dose rates are accurate and produce reliable results. For more accurately determined therapeutic regimes the clinician should refer to the chapter on allometric scaling in Mader.(4) This author has anaesthetized both native and exotic species of reptiles in Australia and overseas with minimal complications. It is important to note that there is variation in response to drugs among individuals of the same species in traditional small animal medicine as well as human anaesthesia but this is not a reason to stray from accepted scientific and ethical standards.

This author also has a moral objection as to the reason why this procedure is being performed. In reality venomous snakes are dangerous animals and if they cannot be handled safely without harm to either the animal or the handler then they should not be kept. It is not a valid reason to disfigure or remove a normal part of an animal's anatomy to prevent injury to humans. There are only a few elective surgical procedures performed by Veterinarians (such as routine desexing) and these are performed because they have a huge social benefit as well as preventative health consequences. Importantly, decisions to perform such procedures are not made lightly and only after considerable scientific debate, as highlighted by the recent banning of tail docking in Victoria. Although this "venomoid" procedure has been described in the newest edition of Mader it is important to realise that Australia is at the forefront of animal welfare issues as highlighted by the fact that tail docking and ear cropping are still legal procedures in the United States.

Furthermore, it is an offense under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act for any person to carry out a surgical operation on an animal unless "during the entire length of the operation, the animal is under the influence of an anaesthetic so as to be insensible to any pain it might have otherwise suffered"(13). All anaesthetic agents are controlled substances and may only be administered to animals by registered Veterinarians as outlined in the Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act.(14)

In summary, no anaesthetic procedure is without risk in any species but by having a basic understanding of physiology, anatomy and pharmacology the risks may be minimized. Hypothermia is not an accepted means of anaesthetizing reptiles or amphibians and analgesia should be provided to all animals that undergo any surgical procedure. Such procedures should only be performed by a registered Veterinary Surgeon.

1. Hoser R. Surgical Removal of Venom Glands in Australian Elapid Snakes. The Crocodilian 2004; Volume 4 Issue 5: 18-31

2. Hoser R. Surgically Enhanced Venomous Snakes. Venom Glands Out, Silicone Implants in! The Crocodilian 2005; Volume 5 Issue 2; 17-28

3. Young JZ. The Life of Vertebrates. Oxford University Press 3rd Edition 1989; 276 - 322

4. Mader DR. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. W. B. Saunders 2nd Edition 2006; 419-427, 442-452, 612-613

5. Wright KM, Whitaker BR, Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry. Krieger Publishing Company 2001; 111-121

6. Simpson M. Anaesthesia of Reptiles. Conference Proceedings Of The Unusual & Exotic Pet Veterinarians 2004/2005

7. McCracken HE. Husbandry and Disease of Captive Reptiles. Wildlife, The T G Hungerford Refresher Course for Veterinarians Proceedings 233, Post Graduate Committee in Veterinary Science University of Sydney 1994; 461-546

8. Sherwood L. Human Physiology From Cells to Systems. Wadsworth Publishing 3rd Edition 1997; 601-616

9. Kaplan M. Hypothermia in Iguanas and Other Reptiles. http://www.anapsid.org/iguana/hypothermia.html, 10/9/05

10. Heard DJ. Reptile Anaesthesia. http://iacuc.ufl.edu/OLD%20Web%20Site/reptane.htm, 10/9/05

11. Greenacre C, Paul-Murphy J, Sladky KK, Storms T. Reptile and Amphibian Analgesia. J Herp Med & Surg 2005; 15: 24-30

12. Anaesthesia, Chemical Restraint and Pain Management in Venomous Snakes. http://www.snakegetters.com/demo/vet/anesthesia.html, 10/9/05

13. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1968, Act No 7690/1968. Version as at 26 February 2003.

14. Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act 1981, Act No 9719/1981. Version incorporating amendments as at 1 July 2005.



My Experience with OPMV - by Steve Cato (NoOne).

On the 20th October, 2006 about 6pm, I received the news via phone from vet Mark Simpson that a diamond that I had euthanised and sent of for tissue tests came back positive for OPMV. After hearing the news, I contacted all people I had traded with since purchasing the python, and posted up on the forums that I had a confirmed case of OPMV. The diamond python had shown signs of being unwell about a week prior, the first symptom was it suffering from an impaction and then after I fixed this, it ate and seemed fine. A few days later, it started showing neurological signs becoming very rigid and tense, then rolling it's head and the first 10cm of it's body upside down. This is when we became concerned, and immediately separated it from the rest of the collection, then took him straight to Mark Simpson in Newcastle to have the snake euthanised and tested. Because the symptoms the snake had was NOT typical of OPMV, the vet thought that it was suffering from a tumor (the neurological symptoms seemed only to affect one side of it's brain), but the decision was made to have it tested to be on the safe side. Unfortunately, this test cannot be performed on a live snake, but due to the extreme neurological signs this snake was exhibiting, euthanising it at this point seemed the kinder thing to do. The test was carried by Neil Sullivan of IDEXX labartories and took a week to come back. During this time we ceased all trading and hoped that the vet was right..that the snake was just suffering from a tumor. It still came as a huge shock to have the positive result.

What made it more unlikely that the snake was suffering from OPMV was that the snake had been in our collection for 10 months before showing any signs of illness. It was a young diamond python, I had bought it for my girlfriend as a present from another keeper that only had one snake. I had bought it as a difficult feeder, so it was on the small side, but I had it immediately feeding fine on thawed rats. It was cooled over the winter which I am sure helped the virus lie dormant for so long. I had only quarantined this python for 6 months from the rest of the collection, due to it feeding fine and also because it came from a small collection. So when the snake showed signs of OPMV it was already in the same room as the rest of my collection. It didn't have any of the other symptoms you hear about, like any respiratory problems, RTIs or mucus whatsoever, the only thing that was suspect was the neurological signs.

The day after I received the news about the OPMV, I woke up to my adult female bredli that was caged in a bank next to the diamond python showing neurological symptoms. She was rolling on her back, unable to right herself. This was heartbreaking as this snake was a favourite of mine. This is when I had no doubt that the test results were conclusive about OPMV. We have now ceased all trading for at least the next 14 months, provided that no other cases of OPMV show up in our collection. So far no more animals have shown any signs of the disease. We have quarantined all hatchings this season away from the main collection so that there is no chance they could have it. That will at least give us a base to start from should we lose the rest of our collection, though at this stage that looks unlikely.



OPMV is devastating to any herp keeper and certainly changed the way I feel and think about keeping reptiles. There is still a lot to know and be researched yet about this disease, little is known about how it's contracted, but a few things are certain - It's contagious and transferred easily from snake to snake in ways which aren't fully known yet; at this stage in Australia there is NO CURE for this disease; and testing can only be carried out via tissue samples from the brain, lungs and liver of a snake, therefore no testing on a live animals exists in Australia. Every reptile keeper should be taking the threat of this disease very seriously and taking the appropriate precautions to protect their collection. As it stands at the moment, there is little public knowledge and ignorance of this disease, which in my opinion is contributing to the spread of the disease.

** Editors note - link to OPMV discussion about quarantine and hygiene by John Weigal:
Link to NPWS Hygiene protocol for the control of disease in captive snakes



Reptiles as Gifts - By Judith

Pets as gifts. Some say yes and others say no.

You may remember the R.S.P.C.A. ads about getting that cute puppy on Christmas day, loving it until it starts to defecate everywhere and chew up your good pair of shoes. Then it is ousted to the street to fend for itself, create a nuisance and take up valuable space in an already over crowded animal shelter. Ok, the ad didn’t quite go like that, but that is the general idea they were trying to get across. Not only was it a bad thing to do to the dog but it blocked up the fostering system with an over abundance of pets, quite a few of that end up getting euthanized.

What has this to do with reptiles?

Quite a lot, especially with the increase of reptiles, as pets, finding their way into our community. Reptiles are seen as the new fad, especially snakes, due to their scare factor. Most pet shops cater for reptiles, either in selling the reptiles themselves or a host of equipment needed in reptile care. When you look at it all, it is pretty easy to obtain a reptile as a pet, or even express an interest in reptiles. Once you have your license a wide door is opened to you of easily accessible reptiles.

Out of the people I have talked to (family included), the idea of giving reptiles (or at least the license) as a gift is a popular notion. In QLD there is a waiting time of approximately 10 days in obtaining a license, and some pet shops will let you purchase prior to your license but then hold onto the reptile of your choice until you get the license. While there is nothing wrong with this, it is the impulse purchasing is what is wrong.

Again I vary off the real tangent of this article, but I look back and think that it has a lot to do with it. Impulse purchases are what makes a gift most of the time, and there are a lot of reptiles hatching and looking for new homes in the summer/spring time. It is so tempting, especially when you can pick up that baby bearded dragon for a little more then pocket change. What do you take it home to then? An empty fish tank with a water bowl in one end, a piece of wood to rest on and a desk lamp for warmth because you haven’t adequately researched it?

What happens when after 6 months you look at this dragon that has outgrown its tank, eating a bunch of crickets each day, along with those things called vegetables (which are apparently essential to its diet)? What happens if it needs vet treatment? You can’t just let it go and say “She’ll be right mate”. Reptiles are a pet that has needs, requirements and the occasional vet treatment. Just like the puppy, they grow up become less adorable, eat you out of house and insect, need room to move and don’t stop crapping everywhere. So, before you buy that adorable ‘little’ snake in the pet shop window, or from the online classifieds, think to yourself:

How big will it grow? Am I prepared for the expenses of keeping this pet? Will I really want it 6 months down the track?

How to prepare yourself for these questions is to research, research and research some more and then if you still want it after then, I would say yes, get it, as a gift to yourself. And if anyone wants to give you a reptile as a gift, and you aren’t ready for it, just say no thanks.


Keeping and Breeding feeder crickets. - by Naomi Lee (Nome)

Even before I kept reptiles, I have bred crickets very easily to be able to afford to feed my often hundreds to thousands of baby and adult tarantulas. When I entered the reptile world, I was surprised to hear so many people have problems breeding crickets, including my other half, Steve. I have shared my way of setting up and breeding the insects with others which seems to work whatever climate they are in. Steve has refined it somewhat and certainly maximised the cricket turnover much higher than I could originally obtain. For starters, I will say that we live in a pretty mild climate and we usually only breed our crickets over spring/summer/early autumn so we don't have to bother heating them. We find the problem is more keeping them cool in summer than warm on the colder days, heat seems to kill them much quicker.

We use large plastic tubs, and fill them with my homemade gutload recipe for substrate (more on this receipe later), many egg cartons stacked vertically and a take away container in each filled to the brim with moist, semi compacted beach sand. We also grate carrot over the substrate every second day for moisture, something which is vital to keeping and breeding crickets in our experience. In these tubs we place around 20 - 40 or so large adult crickets. The tubs must be well ventilated and you can do this a few ways - our favourite is to cut the top out of the lid and glue fly screen over it, and it's made a very cheap and easy ventilated lid. Another way is to paint the brim of the tub with liquid teflon a few inches wide, and to leave the lid off altogether. The crickets are unable to climb over the teflon, but the only disadvantage to using this method is that any pests can be encourage in by a free food source with nothing stopping them from getting in there, such as mice or house cockroaches. The vented lid is made easily and keeps these unwanted pests away from the crickets. You will find having a good half a dozen tubs almost necessary to turnover large amounts of crickets. You always have a spare or two lying around which you need for cleaning and making new rearing tubs, and allowing plenty of places to grow your crickets in their various stages of life. Using egg cartons also is very important and vital for the crickets survival. It gives them plenty of places to hide away from each other and will encourage them to lay, but this will work much better if they are stacked vertically. If you do not provide egg cartons for your crickets, they will eat each other.

Over the next week, the female crickets use their ovipositor to lay many eggs in the sand. We place the one of the egg cartons over the sand to give them the maximum possible privacy so they will continually lay. After one week, we remove the box of sand and replace with another fresh box of sand. We put a lid on the sand we have removed and place it in a warm place for 2-3 weeks, usually our incubator if it happens to be running, or on top of a herp cage is also ideal. The only thing that needs to be done in this time is to make sure the sand is always kept slightly moistened. After this time, little pinhead crickets start to emerge from the sand and are ready to be put in a rearing box.

Steve has found a way to remove the fragile pinheads without squashing them, which is something I always had trouble doing. Once they are emerging, he puts the sand in a larger tub and takes the lid off the sand. The pinheads usually then jump into the container around them, then it's as simple as daily tipping the pinheads free roaming out of the sand into the rearing container. The rearing container consists of a similar setup to the adults, but with far less egg cartons and ones that only sit on the ground so nothing can fall and squash these tiny crickets. We use the gutload recipe for substrate and daily add freshly grated carrot. Pinheads will die very easily if they get too hot and if there is no moisture for them, so giving them carrot daily is very important. They stay in this rearing box until they are adults on go into the breeding box to lay. We just add more egg cartons as they get older, and change the substrate when it's needed. And then recycle another tub for the next lot of crickets.

One of the secrets to breeding and raising crickets successfully in my opinion is our homemade gutload recipe that we use for substrate. They grow much quicker in my experience on this, and also look plump all the time and look much healthier than the petstore ones. This recipe is much different to the gutload you get with the petstore crickets, we make this in large amounts and use for the entire substrate so there is always plenty there for them to eat. I use a mixture of this and use organic where possible (it makes a big difference in my opinion) and grind it up in a food processor when possible for pinheads to eat easily.

For the base, equal amounts of these:
-oatbran
-wheat bran
-L.S.A mix (Linseed, sunflower seed and almond, ground up and mixed together, sold in a packet in health food sections of supermarkets)
And sprinkle generous amounts of
-brewer's yeast (available at health food shops very cheaply)
-calcium powder
-powdered spirilana (available at health food shops)
-fish food (I use the goldfish food)

Mix in altogether and lay a couple of centremetres deep on the base of the tub. This mixture usually goes for 2 or 3 weeks before needing changing. The best way to change it is to put the fresh mix in a different tub, and move all crickets and egg cartons over to the new tub, then clean the old one out and store it for next clean out and do the same process. Grated washed carrot can be added over the mixture every 1-2 days and usually all gets eaten so there is no residue.

Breeding and raising crickets is relatively easy and I have put this method down as simply as possible, without using temperatures or complex theories. It really is this easy and we've found it works everytime, just watch them getting too hot or too cold.


Herping in the Tara Shire south west Qld - by Nathan Clout (Nathanbrisvegas)

As some would already know a trip out to the Tara shire was organised by some members of ARK. After weeks of anticipation the day finally came. Mike (aka tiger) had arranged to pick me up and take me out in his car where we would meet the rest of the gang . While driving out we could see massive electrical storm clouds brewing over the flat landscape, they put on a rather attractive light show .

We arrived in a “blink and you will miss it “ type small town by the name of Brigalow, this is where we waited for Dale (aka moose) the owner of the property where we where to stay, to arrive. After Dale arrived we were anxious to get out to the property. We left for it practically straight after meeting up with Dale and his partner Phoebe. All this time we had forgotten about the storm brewing over on the horizon, we soon were reminded of it.

Whilst unpacking the cars it started to rain very heavily, which was good for the drought struck area however wasn’t so good for what we had planned. After it had settled down a few of us decided we should go in search for some frogs . We stepped outside to find massive puddles and running streams, it proved to be un-productive (perhaps it was to wet for the frogs liking?). After that we all decided to call it a night. The next day was set off with an early start, Dale being the first up to start up the fire. After procrastinating for a short time we finally decided to go for a walk in search of rock exfoliations in the far corner of the property. We never got to find the rocks, instead we walked through dry scrub dominated by Casuarina trees . After relentless searching we finally came across our first reptile for the weekend, it was a binoes gecko found under a large pile of wood poles on the ground . After this many more followed of these beautiful geckos, and their eggs.


Herping habitat by Dale (Moose)
It was around 11 am when we arrived back at the house/camp. By this stage everyone was feeling a little worn out from the long walk we had just endured. Phoebe (Dale's partner) had ate a banana and had walked outside to dispose of the skin, suddenly she came running back in telling us of a goanna that had just ran away from her, we all automatically grabbed cameras and headed in the direction it ran she described it as yellow and black with bands . Some of us immediately assumed a Gould’s Goanna however where surprised to find a bell’s phase Lace monitor (Varanus varius). After many picture where taken we all headed back to the house for a rest.

Dave (aka Davo) had decided that he was going to skip the resting and head to town to get some supplies. On arrival back at the camp he had plenty of pictures to show of a juvenile D.O.R bell’s phase lace monitor (Varanus varius) as well as a picture of a D.O.R carpet python (Morelia spilota). He had also seen some live Gould’s Goannas (Varanus gouldi) that had been feasting off carrion.

On sunset that night we all jumped in the cars and started to night drive the roads to see what we could see. After a few false alarms on things like centipedes, we found something spectacular. 'SNAKE!' we all yelled as the car came to a abrupt halt . We all jumped out and started to move towards a dark figure sliding off to the side of the road. After realising it was a Blue Bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis guttatus) most of us backed off and got pictures from a distance. Getting back in the car i noticed that the bottom of my cast had caved in whilst running down the road (broken leg at the time). Along with a few frogs this concluded the driving half of the night.


Photo's by Mike Donovon (Tiger).

After dinner many walks around the property searching for Eastern Spiny Tail Geckos (Strophrurus williamsi) and Pale Headed Snakes (Hoplocephalus bitorquatus) where conducted however neither of the species where located. It was an early departure the next day for Jayson (aka insufficient Funds)and Dave , however Mike, myself , Dale and Phoebe stayed back for a while to herp a little more. We jumped in the car and headed towards the Condamine river. Along the way we spotted some normal phase lace monitors both juvenile and adult which were feeding off dead wallabies/kangaroos. We descended into the bed of the river ,which at that point of time was bone dry . There was a heap of debris in the river bed including fridges and advertisement banners. On flipping of the fridge we found a rainbow skink (Carlia tetradactyla ). That was all that was found in the Condamine and that’s where our trip ended.

It was a great weekend had by all of us and I am sure these little get togethers will become a regular occurrence.

Species list 2 Lerista fragillis 4 Varanus gouldi 1 Varanus panoptes 4 Varanus varius 1 Pseudechis guttatus 1 Pogona barbata 1 Amphibolurus burnsi 3 Litoria caerulea 4 Litoria lattopalmata 3 Litoria rubella 50+ Opisthodon ornatus 6 Heterenotia binoei Burns Dragon (right), photo by Mike Donovon (Tiger)

Has Drought Affected Our Animals? - by Luke Ludwell (Soulweaver)

Growing up in southern Victoria wasn’t as fortunate as some of the herpers from up north. Although we still have a wide variety of reptiles to see in the wild, and it is worth getting out there and seeing them, it often means long trips in the car from the city in order to go and see the variety of animals. I myself growing up on the Mornington Peninsula meant that you were likely to come across several different species of skink, including the popular Blue Tongue (Tiliqua scincoides) and even my favorite species of dragon the Jacky Dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus). It was when it came to snakes that the types of species dropped, and the most common was the tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) and probably my most favorite snake of all, the Red Bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus)

To come across a Red Bellied Black Snake was very unheard of, and my first encounter was actually that of a dead one that a kid had run over in a caravan park. The next would take a few years before I would encounter again, and this encounter presented itself in the back of a golf course where we were frog hunting in a recycled water pond. Morning on this day had heated the day up fast and the Red Bellied Black Snake swam across the water obviously to get away from us, and was probably there to bask and feed and keep cool as it new just how hot that day was going to get. Anyone who knows just how beautiful the sheen on a Red Bellie is would have marveled at the beauty of this particular sheen as it glistened in the sun and magnified. On the other side of the water the snake disappeared and that was the last I saw of the Red Bellied Black Snake. I encountered Tiger Snakes, and what I believed to be Copperhead, but never again did I see a Red Bellied Black Snake, with exception of on day in spring when I think I may have just caught a glimpse, but I am not 100% sure on this one.

Over the years the heat in summer increased, and anyone who has lived in Australia long enough knows the more summers we face the hotter it gets, and the drier the winters are. Water restrictions are in place, and they get worse every year, there is no doubt that this country is in a drought. In my day growing up I saw the ponds and streams where the frogs and tadpoles used to live dry and disappear. The croaks that would bug you as you walked around the bush disappeared, and became far and few between, so this being the main diet of the Red Bellied Black Snake wipe the species from this small pocket of bush land where I grew up? People from the Mornington Peninsula whom I have spoken with said it had been years since they had seen a Red Bellied Black Snake, so did they too see the demise of this beautiful animal from the areas they frequented? The department said that the Red Bellied Black Snake is not an animal found on the Mornington Peninsula, they claim that this animal is an animal that is an escaped pet, or an animal that has hitched a ride on cars or in boxes from motorists. From the few numbers that I saw growing up, was it possible that the Red Bellies that I saw where catch and release jobs? Who did they hitch a ride? A friend of mine who catches snakes in Mornington believes the Red Bellie is still down there, over the years he has still caught a few Red Bellies and the department has still denied that they live there. Until the other week there wasn’t much evidence to go on, until a big male was caught with battle wounds and ticks and a wild attitude to boot, is he a Mornington Peninsula Red Bellie? Is he a escaped animal? Or is this evolution showing that an animal that is known to have a staple diet of water related foods is adapting and surviving in a drought stricken land?


Herp Art by Judith

My First Herp Trip - by Misty (GreenPython)
Misty sent us a nice long article, due to space restrictions we've put it here rather than cut it down.

WHAT'S NEW AT ARK

New chatroom moderators We have appointed two new chatroom moderators to help out with late night chat and keeping an eye on any problems that arise. We welcome MattE and Isis to the ARK chat moderating team, and hope all members will make them feel welcome in chat. Both Matt and Isis have been members on ARK for sometime and have always proven to be helpful and friendly to others and we appreciate their addition to our team.

WHATS IN THE PIPELINE

ARK Chat server - Our new chatroom is getting closer to completion :)

UPCOMING EVENTS

Look out for these events coming soon at ARK!

AUSSIE REPTILE KEEPER - TEAM PROFILE Meet ARK's administration and moderating team. We thought it's time we introduced properly all the people that are involved in the day to day running of ARK and the ARK chatroom. ARK owner Shane, all admin, site moderators, forum moderators, chatroom moderators and newsletter team have written something of their choice about themselves to share with you. We hope this gives you some interesting insight into our admin and moderator teams and is an enjoyable and informative read. Shane Hunter - Owner/Webmaster. I've been around Reptiles and Parrots on and off most of my life, I love them. I'm forty something, enjoy running the behind the scenes/technical side of ARK and very keen to see people educated about OPMV and other reptile related diseases/issues. I'm also 110% against Ray Hosers venomoid experiments. Please sign this petetion Some of the people involved with ARK I've known personally for several years, it's only from the continued encouragement, support and hard work from these people (and my better half, Vanessa) that we have a growing, thriving community. During the last week I have decided to take a back seat and let everybody (below) have a turn running the membership side of things because it really has come to the time for me to take a break :) Jayson Marquet - Administrator. Hi all, my name is Jayson and I am part of the Administration Duo here at ARK. I have been keeping Reptiles a total of 5 years, 2 years while I lived in NSW, and now 3 years while here in God’s Country QLD. At present I keep a total of 25 reptiles ranging from Central Netteds & Geckos through to Pythons & Tree Snakes. I would have to say that the Gecko side of things is what most interests me at the moment, with such huge variety of shapes, sizes and stunning colours, it’s very hard where to start. In regards to my Rep’s, i would have to say that the most attention goes to my Ring Tail Gecko’s (Cyrtodactylus louisiadensis) as these things are always on the go. They launch themselves out of the branches for a feed, always out and about there enclosure instead of hiding, and are just an awesome animal to watch. Basically, my role on ARK is just to keep tabs on how the site is running, some general behind the scenes work as well as the huge job of trying to keep Shane on the straight and narrow. If any of you have any question, don’t hesitate to pm me and ill try and help you out with your needs. Peter Buckley - Administrator. Keeping reptiles off and on since I was a kid. I'm getting long in the tooth. I've been around the sites and a lot of people know me. I'm involved in rescue and I'm in Sydney with Sydney Metropolitan Wildlife Services Inc. A good organisation to join or support. I've kept a large number of species over the years and have a pass able knowledge of husbandry but am still learning something most days. In all those years I had never had anything as devastating as OPMV in my collection and when it hit it was a kick in the guts. There's a big learning curve right there. I'm here because I was asked to be. I was asked when the site was first put up but other commitments meant I wasn't able to have a main role. I probably should have but if you make a commitment then you should see it through to some conclusion. Shane and I have corresponded for a number of years now and I've always had a respect for his belief in honesty. He may go about other peoples attitudes in a hard way sometimes but his integrity cannot be challenged. Thats why I'm here. My other half has no real interest in reptiles but is supportive. We have two kids and no plans for any more. My favourite reptile is, is, is............................mmmm, let me think, ones I come across in the wild. My favourite herp moment was swimming in a lake on Frazer island with the turtles. Im always willing to help if can so dont be shy. Naomi (Nome) - Site Moderator/Newletter Team. My name is Naomi, and I have been keeping reptiles for over 3 years. My main interest is spiders, and I have been keeping and breeding Australian tarantulas for about 6 years, but have had pet spiders and studied them for as long as I can remember. My partner is NoOne (Steve) who has been keeping reptiles seriously for 12 years and we have 2 young children and one on the way due next year. We keep and maintain a large collection consisting mainly of pythons, we also have bearded dragons, frill neck lizards and painted dragons as well as around 100 Australian tarantulas. My favourite reptile is the Scrub Python and my favourite in our collection is my scrub python, Sarif, even though he is evil. We usually breed pythons every season, the highlight was last year breeding the first clutch of BHPs. I've learned a lot since I moved in with Steve and this many reptiles, had many good experiences and some bad, but it's all part of keeping. My day job is working with Steve in our business which is maintaining holiday units in our area. My role on ARK is in the newsletter team, organizing and harassing people to write us articles, the member profile and helping Shane write up the other parts of our newsletter. I am also a site moderator and also a moderator of the spider forum, I've been on ARK since it first started and haven't looked back. If I can help you with anything spider related or anything to do with the site in general, please PM me. David (Moloch) - Site Moderator. I have been interested in reptiles since my high school days in southern California. At that time, my friends and I often traveled through the deserts of southeastern California to search for reptiles. I always had a room full of terrariums with various snakes and lizards that we found. Now, I no longer keep reptiles but I love to search for them and take their photos in their environment. My 19 year old son, Nicholas, is my usual traveling partner and he and I have visited many beautiful and remote parts of the country. I also have a wife and two daughters but they do not share my interest in the outback or reptiles. I joined the ARK forum in June of this year and recently became one of the site moderators. TOXINOLOGIST (David Williams) Elapid Mod/Snakebite Mod. David is 42 years old and has been keeping reptiles since he was 5 years old. He grew up in Quirindi, a small town on the edge of the Liverpool Plains south-west of Tamworth and has been catching and keeping venomous snakes since he was 8 years old. The local herpetofauna included common brown snakes (Pseudonaja textilis), spotted black snakes (Pseudechis guttatus), red-bellied black snakes (Pseudechis porphyriacus) and tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus) and these species were the targets of childhood reptile collecting 'expeditions' in the local bush. Snake handling techniques were learned through trial and error using hands and homemade snake hooks. Because of this early contact with venomous snakes David's interests have always been dominated by a fascination with 'hot' snakes and the effects of their venoms. He was worked professionally as a herpetologist for most of his adult life, and for the last six years has worked extensively in Papua New Guinea where he has conducted studies of the epidemiology and clincial effects of snakebite, as well as research on venomous snake systematics, zoogeography and other related subjects. He has tertiary qualifications in biochemistry, molecular biology, public health and tropical medicine, and is currently conducting clincial snakebite research in PNG under the auspices of the Australian Venom Research Unit (University of Melbourne) for a PhD in Medicine. David has appeared in documentaries for the National Geographic Channel, Animal Planet and Discovery Channel, and published his first book (co-edited with Dr's Simon Jensen, Bill Nimo and Ken Winkel from AVRU) "Venomous bites and stings in Papua New Guinea" in 2005. Scott Eipper - Elapid Mod/Herp Photography Mod. I have been keeping various reptiles and amphibians since I was 5. I currently work in the plumbing trade as well a running a wildlife education business with my partner. I have had 16 articles and scientific papers published in a wide range of regional and international journals on subjects ranging from husbandry to range extensions and other related field work. I also have run/continue to run courses on fauna survey techniques (mainly for Uni and Tafe students and Wildlife departments). My passions are mainly elapids, photography and field work. Tim - ChatRoom Mod - Organiser. G'day I'm 21 from the Central Coast, NSW. I'm a bean counter full time, so I need the herps to give me a bit of excitement in my life. I've been keeping all sorts of reptiles on and off for nearly 3 years now and am loving every minute of it (except when they decide to crap just after you've cleaned them). I also did about 8 months of Volunteering at the Australian Reptile Park and doing snake rescues for WIRES in which time I learnt an absolute heap while having the time of my life - definitely recommend this to others. At the moment I have a pair of black headed pythons and a diamond python (hoping to get him a girlfriend this year) and looking to breed them both for the first time in the next couple of years. Judith - Newsletter Team. I have been keeping lizards for 16 months, and only recently become involved in the ARK community. My role here is to learn from others, help inform others and offer suggestions that are within my knowledge range. In my spare time I work from home in a variety of different roles and create a few pictures that have been seen up here (and not seen up here). I also have 4 daughters whom are becoming increasingly interested in the reptile world (It looks like it may become a family hobby). I currently keep 2 breeding pairs of central netted dragons, a pair of baby bearded dragons and a pair of juvenile eastern blue tongue skinks. NoOne (Steve Cato) - Chatroom moderator. Hi, I'm Steve, I live on the north coast of NSW with my family, we own and run a property maintenence business. I've been keeping reptiles for around 12yrs but it has been a life long interest. I have always had an big interest in all animals and the outdoors with fishing been my other favorite pastime. I kept and bred many different species of reptiles over the years including pythons; dragons; skinks and monitors. My favorite reptiles are pythons with BHPs being one of the best. I've been a member of ARK since the beginning and have watched it grow into the great little site it is now. Hopefully I will be involved with it for many years to come.